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Gracillariidae

Gracillariidae
Privet leaf miner, "Gracillaria syringella" (Fabricius, 1794)
Privet leaf miner, Gracillaria syringella (Fabricius, 1794)
Scientific classification Edit this classification
Domain: Eukaryota
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Arthropoda
Class: Insecta
Order: Lepidoptera
Superfamily: Gracillarioidea
Family: Gracillariidae
Stainton, 1854
Subfamilies

 Genera - see "Subfamilies and genera"

Diversity[1]
About 101 genera and 1,866 species
Phyllocnistis magnoliella in magnolia leaf.

Gracillariidae is an important family of insects in the order Lepidoptera and the principal family of leaf miners that includes several economic, horticultural or recently invasive pest species such as the horse-chestnut leaf miner, Cameraria ohridella.

Taxonomy and systematics

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There are 98 described genera of Gracillariidae (see below). A complete checklist is available of all currently recognised species.[2] There are many undescribed species in the tropics but there is also an online catalogue of Afrotropical described species [1] Archived 2007-02-05 at the Wayback Machine; the South African fauna is quite well known. Although Japanese and Russian authors have recognised additional subfamilies,[2] there are three currently recognised subfamilies, Phyllocnistinae of which is likely to be basal. In this subfamily, the primitive genus Prophyllocnistis from Chile feeds on the plant genus Drimys (Winteraceae), and has leaf mines structurally similar in structure to fossils (see "Fossils").[3] While there have been some recent DNA sequence-based studies of Palaearctic species[4][5] there is need for a satisfactory modern global phylogenetic framework for the subfamilies of Gracillariidae. Some genera are very large, e.g. Acrocercops, Caloptilia, Cameraria, Epicephala and Phyllonorycter.

Distribution

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Gracillariidae occur in all terrestrial regions of the world except Antarctica.

Identification

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These generally small (wingspan 5–20 mm) moths are leaf miners as caterpillars,[6] which can provide a useful means of identification, especially if the hostplant is known. The subfamilies differ by the adult moth resting posture (Davis and Robinson, 1999). Most Gracillariinae rest with the front of the body steeply raised; Lithocolletinae and Phyllocnistinae rest with the body parallel to the surface; in Lithocolletinae often with the head lowered.

Some additional features can be seen under close examination. The antennal flagellomeres of adults have two rows of scales: a basal row with large scales covering an apical row with smaller scales. The male genitalia has only four pair of muscles and lacks a gnathos. The female ovipositor is short and laterally flattened.[7]

Life history

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Most larval Gracillariidae undergo hypermetamorphosis, meaning there is a major change within the larval stage. Early instars have a flattened head and body, modified mandibles, and lack functional spinnerets or legs; these feed on sap.[7][8] Later instars are cylindrical with round heads, and have chewing mouthparts, legs and functional spinnerets; these feed on plant tissue.[7][8] Some species additionally have a spinning instar that does not feed, and others have a non-feeding instar before this spinning instar.[8]

The Brazilian Spinivalva gaucha is an exception to this trend, lacking a sap-feeding stage.[9]

Gracillariidae have various lifestyles. Some larvae mine leaves while others instead roll leaves, and there are also larvae which mine other plant parts or form galls.[8]

Larval hostplants

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Many host plants are known, generally dicotyledonous trees or shrubs.[10] Patterns of hostplant shifting have been inferred for many United Kingdom species in the genus Phyllonorycter and its sister genus Cameraria.[5] A recent DNA sequencing study mainly of Palaearctic species has shown that the burst of evolutionary adaptive radiation occurred long after that of the larval hostplants, rather than demonstrating a tight coevolutionary process.[4]

Fossils

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The family is an old one, with fossil Phyllocnistinae mines known from 97-million-year-old rocks in Kansas and Nebraska.[11] There are other fossil mines known from rocks of Eocene and Miocene age.[2] There are also two adult moths known from Lithuanian or Baltic amber of Eocene age: Gracillariites lithuanicus Kozlov, 1987 and G. mixtus Kozlov, 1987.[2]

Subfamilies and genera

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Phylogeny of Gracillariidae
Gracillariidae
from Li et al. 2022
Horse-chestnut leaf miner (Cameraria ohridella) tree damage in Parma, Italy

Gracillariidae phylogeny has been revised in 2017 and is now containing eight subfamilies:[12]

Unplaced species

References

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  1. ^ "Animal biodiversity: An outline of higher-level classification and survey of taxonomic richness - Lepidoptera" (PDF). mapress.com. Archived (PDF) from the original on 10 June 2014. Retrieved 18 January 2019.
  2. ^ a b c d Prins, Willy De; Prins, Jurate De (1998-01-01). World Catalogue of Insects. Vol. 6. ISBN 978-87-88757-64-4. Archived from the original on 2023-09-30. Retrieved 2021-12-16.
  3. ^ Donald R. Davis (1 May 1994). "New leaf-mining moths from Chile, with remarks on the history and composition of Phyllocnistinae (Lepidoptera: Gracillariidae)". Tropical Lepidoptera. 5 (1): 65–75. hdl:10088/20928. ISSN 1048-8138. Wikidata Q110143832.
  4. ^ a b Lopez-Vaamonde C; Wikström N; Labandeira C; Godfray HC; Simon J. Goodman; James M Cook (1 July 2006). "Fossil-calibrated molecular phylogenies reveal that leaf-mining moths radiated millions of years after their host plants". Journal of Evolutionary Biology. 19 (4): 1314–1326. doi:10.1111/J.1420-9101.2005.01070.X. ISSN 1010-061X. PMID 16780532. Wikidata Q42036997.
  5. ^ a b Carlos Lopez-Vaamonde; H. Charles J. Godfray; James M. Cook (2003). "EVOLUTIONARY DYNAMICS OF HOST-PLANT USE IN A GENUS OF LEAF-MINING MOTHS". Evolution. 57 (8): 1804–1821. doi:10.1554/02-470. ISSN 0014-3820. Wikidata Q57381916.
  6. ^ "Gracillariidae". Archived from the original on 2007-03-24. Retrieved 2007-03-03.
  7. ^ a b c Kawahara, Akito Y.; Plotkin, David; Ohshima, Issei; Lopez-Vaamonde, Carlos; Houlihan, Peter R.; Breinholt, Jesse W.; Kawakita, Atsushi; Xiao, Lei; Regier, Jerome C.; Davis, Donald R.; Kumata, Tosio; Sohn, Jae-Cheon; De Prins, Jurate; Mitter, Charles (2017). "A molecular phylogeny and revised higher-level classification for the leaf-mining moth family G racillariidae and its implications for larval host-use evolution". Systematic Entomology. 42 (1): 60–81. Bibcode:2017SysEn..42...60K. doi:10.1111/syen.12210. ISSN 0307-6970.
  8. ^ a b c d Li, Xuankun; St Laurent, Ryan; Earl, Chandra; Doorenweerd, Camiel; van Nieukerken, Erik J.; Davis, Donald R.; Johns, Chris A.; Kawakita, Atsushi; Kobayashi, Shigeki; Zwick, Andreas; Lopez-Vaamonde, Carlos; Ohshima, Issei; Kawahara, Akito Y. (2022). "Phylogeny of gracillariid leaf-mining moths: evolution of larval behaviour inferred from phylogenomic and Sanger data". Cladistics. 38 (3): 277–300. doi:10.1111/cla.12490. ISSN 0748-3007. PMID 34710244.
  9. ^ Brito, Rosangela; Gonçalves, Gislene; Vargas, Hector; Moreira, Gilson (2013-04-17). "A new Brazilian Passiflora leafminer: Spinivalva gaucha, gen. n., sp. n. (Lepidoptera, Gracillariidae, Gracillariinae), the first gracillariid without a sap-feeding instar". ZooKeys (291): 1–26. Bibcode:2013ZooK..291....1B. doi:10.3897/zookeys.291.4910. ISSN 1313-2970. PMC 3677287. PMID 23794860.
  10. ^ "HOSTS - the Hostplants and Caterpillars Database at the Natural History Museum".[permanent dead link‍]
  11. ^ C C Labandeira; D L Dilcher; D R Davis; D L Wagner (6 December 1994). "Ninety-seven million years of angiosperm-insect association: paleobiological insights into the meaning of coevolution". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 91 (25): 12278–82. Bibcode:1994PNAS...9112278L. doi:10.1073/PNAS.91.25.12278. ISSN 0027-8424. PMC 45420. PMID 11607501. Wikidata Q24564423.
  12. ^ Kawahara, A. Y.; Plotkin, D.; Ohshima, I.; Lopez-Vaamonde, C.; Houlihan, P. R.; Breinholt, J. W.; Davis, D. R.; Kumata, T.; Sohn, J.-C.; De Prins, J.; Mitter, C. (2017). "A molecular phylogeny and revised higher-level classification for the leaf-mining moth family Gracillariidae and its implications for larval host-use evolution". Systematic Entomology. 42 (1): 60–81. Bibcode:2017SysEn..42...60K. doi:10.1111/syen.12210.
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